Inventory management. Amazon Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Inventory management. Amazon - Research Paper Example The competitive advantage possessed by a company is also determined by similar factors. Efficient management of logistics allows a company to focus on other activities such as adding value to existing products, etc which indirectly increase the productivity of the organization. However, in today’s business scenario, the retail market has evolved and efficient logistics management is no longer just an advantage, it is the norm. Companies have found several different ways in which to achieve this, usually in alignment with their business models. The use of IT technologies has been one of the main factors that have hastened this process since companies are now able to communicate between offices regardless of the distance that separates them (CILTUK, 2007: 10-11). In order to understand the practical issues concerning inventory management, we examine the case of Amazon in the below report. Aims and Objectives of the research The following case study which examines the case of Amazon reflects on the growth of the company with respect to various theories associated with logistics management, in particular with the subject of inventory management. It attempts to relate the issues faced by the company and its subsequent successes to the research available in the field. It also explores the alternatives available for the company that might help it grow further. With the above information, the study also attempts to predict the future direction of the company based on the current status of the company and available business scenarios. Literature Review Company and market overview Amazon was setup in 1994 by Jeff Bezos as an online book store. Similarly, it was established in Europe as a book store in 1998. As a result of its successes, it was launched in other countries as well. Amazon International consists of a number of subsidiaries such as Amazon Japan and its operations in Europe. Its Europe operations ha ve needed an improvement to match its expected growth rate. In particular, its distribution strategy has been looked at more closely and an attempt has been made to emulate the American structure. Due to advancements in technology, Amazon has been able to enter a number of markets. However, technology, coupled with the opening up of new markets across the world has also led to an increase in the number of competitors in the field. Lessons from American Distribution strategy Reducing the costs incurred due to the purchase and holding of inventory or stocks is one of the main challenges for a retail store. However, the challenges faced by an online store are unique. Amazon was setup at a time when most of its competitors, other book stores, were brick and mortar stores or mail – order catalog businesses. The challenge of maintaining a low cost for stocks, at the same time satisfying customer demands is magnified for an online store. Amazon initially tackled this problem by hold ing minimum stocks while relying of wholesalers to satisfy most of its demand. This helped reduce the holding cost of stocks. At the same time, Amazon also tied up with publishers so that the unit cost of stocks would also decrease (Waters, 2003: 52). A combination of the two helped the company's capacity grow from 1 million book titles to 2.5 million book titles in the early years. This also helped ensure that orders were completed

A. Critically assess why organisations should implement supportive Essay

A. Critically assess why organisations should implement supportive career management practices - Essay Example With more internal and external pressures to deliver client oriented services, professionals and organizations alike are increasingly pushed either to perform or face the axe of competitive market forces. Both the individual and the organization are all sailing in an expectant climate of taking responsibility for career management and development. Practitioners and researchers are in agreement that effective career management strategies are essential resources for organizational and individual growth prospects. Even though interest in the long-term growth may seem to be a shared objective of both individual employees and their employers, the key to a sustainable success remains the maintenance of sharp skills, which is largely the responsibility of the individual. The adage of ‘working for an employer for a lifetime with career prospects of â€Å"moving up the ladder†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ seems to be a distant antique memory. In response to the new workplace dynamics, organizational management in the 21st century strives to reward quality services. In this regard, therefore, a working world characterized by globalized outsourcing, reorganization, contract labor, streamlining and downsizing has been adopted to curb escalating costs. As such, those entering the job market can, thus, be expected to have dynamic careers with the ability to serve clients in different organizations during a work life estimated to last for 40–50 years. ... While self-management is an important element of individual independence, it takes a self-activated attitudinal shift to cultivate reliance on oneself from the dictatorial organizational career management systems (Arnold, 1997). Critical self-analysis with a view to discovering inner, hidden talents, unexploited capabilities and career ambitions not only helps the individual to map out a concrete action plan but also creates the impetus towards the realization of one’s own desires (Sturges et al., 2000). Precisely, career self-assessment helps in developing more elaborate ideas on desired goals and how to achieve such aspirations. Contributing to the same subject of career development, Seibert, Kraimer and Crant (2001) are also in agreement that individual career self-management has an immense contributory effect on improving employee outcomes as well as the general success of one’s career. Accordingly, personal initiatives such as career oriented feedback from colleagu es provide a more satisfying level of carrier progress via identification of specific areas that require improvement. Notably, those active in monitoring and managing their career development are more likely to engage in informative career conversations to illuminate paths that better serve to accomplish personal aspirations (Schein, 1993). Indeed, self-assessment through feedback from colleagues informs a deeper understanding of oneself on certain fundamental internal career prospects which, in turn, enhance commitment to a more delivering career. Research into a more satisfying work life indicates that personal careers are most productive when employer’s goals are met (Sturges et al., 2000). Certainly, nothing would be more satisfying than knowing that preset targets

Homeostasis Within the Nervous System

Homeostasis Within the Nervous System Section one Homeostasis is the condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment due to the consistent interaction of the body’s main regulatory processes (Tortora and Derrickson, 2009). This process developed by Claude Bernard in 1865 and then named by Walter Cannon in 1926, is used by the endocrine and nervous system in order to maintain a psychological internal environment disregarding external influences. As the environment is always changing the body is constantly trying to regulate factors within it such as water concentration, PH levels, Oxygen levels, nutrients, urea and levels of salt, sugar and electrolytes. During homeostatic regulation the body uses negative feedback to move the body back to within its normal range of values. To do this a receptor detects and responds to a stimuli from the internal or external environment , once detected the receptor sends information of the stimuli down the afferent pathway to a controller. Once received the controller then determines an appropriate response to the stimuli and sends a signal down the efferent pathway to the effector. Once received the effector then makes a change in order to balance out the effects of the stimuli and once again create a dynamic equilibrium within the body. Body temperature is regulated by the autonomic nervous system. Once body temperature rises above the norm it stimulates temperature receptors in the skin dermis, information regarding this change is then sent to the controller which in this instance is the hypothalamus within the brain. The hypothalamus then processes the information and sends a signal to the effect or to start the process of negative feedback. The effector responds by starting the process of vasodilation which in this case would cause the sweat gland to activate in order to lower the body’s core temperature. Without homeostasis a homeostatic imbalance could occur, organisms need to be able to maintain nearly constant internal environments in order to survive grow and function properly (Guyton and Hall, 2006). Enzymes within the body operate to their full potential within a specific range of conditions. By maintaining PH levels and body temperature enzyme linked reactions can occur efficiently. By maintaining changes in water potential homeostasis protects essential cells needed for processes within the body. Changes in water potential could possibly affect the amount of water within tissue fluid and cells, this could potentially cause the cells to desiccate or burst. Therefore, failure to maintain this could possibly lead to a positive feedback mechanism taking over and the possibility of further complications or death. Section 2 The endocrine system consists of glands that are present throughout the body and secrete hormones in order to control actions that maintain homeostasis, preparing the body for the process of fight or flight, controlling growth and controlling sexual development and reproduction. The glands which make up the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, the islet of Langerhans in the pancreas, pineal, the ovaries and testes. Hormones are chemical messengers that are released into the bloodstream; they are carried within blood plasma and affect target cells. Target cells have receptors that attach to specific hormones which have their own receptor. The hormones that are secreted are slower acting however are long-lasting and are good for assisting in areas within the internal environment that require constant adjustments. Therefore assisting with homeostasis. Glucose enters the blood from the small intestine, the body’s blood glucose levels are monitored by a gland called the Islet of Langerhans which is located within the pancreas. A bodies normal range of blood glucose levels are between 4-8mmol/l, these levels frequently change due to eating and exercise. A stable blood glucose level is important within the internal environment as it provides the brain with a strong energy source to enable it to operate and also enables mitochondria to produce Adenosine Triphosphate which is used by cells to perform some of the body’s most important functions such as respiration. Homeostatic regulation of glucose happens when the pancreas detects that the glucose levels become too high or too low as blood passes through it. In the event of Hypoglycemia, where the glucose levels becoming too low the receptor, that is found on the surface of alpha cells within the pancreas stop the production of insulin and start to produce a controller, th e hormone glucagon. Glucagon then stimulates the stores of glycogen in the liver and muscles to convert back to glucose, this process is called glycogenesis. If this is not enough to bring the sugar levels back to normal, glucagon begins to convert fatty acids in to glucose using a process called Gluconeogenesiswithin the effectors. The effectors in this situation are the liver cells, muscles cells and fatty cells. Once converted the glucose is then released into the blood stream causing the bodies glucose levels to rise. In addition to this process, during periods of intense exercise where glucose levels drop the hormone adrenaline will convert glycogen into glucose. In the event of Hyperglycemia, where glucose levels become too high, the receptor which is located on the surface of the beta cells within the pancreas produce a controller to counter act the effects. The controller in this instance is a hormone called insulin. Once insulin is secreted into the bloodstream, glucose lev els within the body decrease because the excess glucose is converted into glycogen through a process called Glycogenesis within the effectors, namely the liver cells and muscles cells. Section 3 Within the process of homeostasis the nervous system detects and responds to adaptions within the body’s internal and external environments by sending fast electrical impulses through nerves to the brain which instructs an effector and enables them to react quickly and return the body to a state of equilibrium. The nervous system consists of the central nervous system which is subdivided into the spinal cord and the brain and the peripheral nervous system which is subdivided into the somatic nervous system which controls our voluntary muscles and the autonomic nervous system which controls our involuntary muscles which helps to create homeostatic regulation of functions within the body such as heart rate. Nerves within these subdivisions transport impulses between the central nervous system and the body. Blood pressure is the force applied on the inner walls of the blood vessels within the body by blood. Blood pressureis measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), A blood press ure reading below 130/80mmHg is considered to be normal (NHS Choices) The first numerical factor within a blood pressure reading is the systolic pressure of the blood which is the amount of beats you heart makes per minutes to pump blood away from the heart. The second numerical factor refers to the diastolic pressure which is the pressure of the blood when tour heart is at rest, in-between beats. During homeostatic regulation of blood pressure if a baroreceptor located in the aortic arch and internal carotid arteries detects a decrease in blood pressure it will send fewer impulses to the controllers, the cardiac centre and the vasomotor centre located in the medulla oblongata of the brain simultaneously. By sending fewer impulses to the cardiac centre it excites the sympathetic impulses and inhibits the parasympathetic impulses. This process excites the effector, Sino-atrial node in order to increase the heart rate, by doing this it causes the hearts cardiac output to increase. Alo ngside this process the fewer impulses being sent to the controller, the vasomotor centre also excites the sympathetic impulses which cause the effector, the smooth muscle within the arterioles to constrict this results in vasoconstriction and increased peripheral resistance. The combinations of these processes cause the blood pressure to increase back to within a normal range. During the detection of high blood pressure by the baroreceptors it sends more impulses to the controllers, the cardiac centre and the vasomotor centre simultaneously. By sending decreasing impulses to the cardiac centre it decreases sympathetic input and an increase in parasympathetic input which decreases the heart rate and cardiac output. Alongside this process the increase in impulses to the vasomotor centre causes an effector, the smooth muscle in the arterioles to dilate. This results in vasodilation and peripheral resistance decreases causing blood pressure to decrease. In addition to the baroreceptors , the kidneys are also involved in the monitoring of blood pressure. If blood pressure decreases the kidneys release a hormone called renin that caused the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. The release of aldosterone causes the kidneys to retain sodium and allows water to flow without resistance causing blood volume and pressure to rise. Section 4 Nephrotic syndrome tends to affect primary school age children. Between two and four children in every 100,000 develop nephrotic syndrome (NHS GOSH) Nephrotic syndrome is a condition where the glomeruli leak a substantial amount of protein therefore not enough protein remains in the blood to enable it to soak up water. This causes the water to move into body tissues causing oedema which presents itself as severe swelling. Proteins provide the body with antibodies this can cause a child with nephrotic syndrome to have a low immune system which results in an increased risk of infection. Other complications of this condition is difficulties in growth and development and prone to blood clots. If protein continues to leak this can lead to a loss of kidney function and ultimately kidney failure. A treatment option for this condition is a medication called furosemide, a loop diuretic that obstructs the reabsorption of sodium and water in the ascending loop of hele, achieved through competitive inhibition. This causes the osmotic gradient through the nephron to be destroyed due to the lumen becoming more hypertonic. This enables the kidn ey to secrete sodium onto the collecting ducts, attracting water volume which is then excreted by the bladder by producing more urine. This will result in less water retention in tissue that would be putting pressure on organs such as the lungs. The Electronic Medicines Compendium States that the pharmacodynamics properties of Furosemide are, it promotes sodium and chloride reabsorption. Furosemide inhibits mechanisms in the epithelial cells in order for sodium and chloride to enter and is transported through the secretory pathway in the proximal tubule. It decreases renal excretion of uric acid and increases loss of potassium in the urine and excretion of ammonia by the kidney. The dosages available for children with oedema as stated by the BNF for Children are orally. Neonate 0.5–2mg/kg every 12–24 hours (every 24 hours if corrected gestational age under 31 weeks),Child 1 month–12 years 0.5–2mg/kg 2–3 times daily (every 24 hours if corrected gestational age under 31 weeks); higher doses may be required in resistant oedema; max. 12mg/kg daily, not to exceed 80mg daily, Child 12–18 years 20–40mg daily, increased in resistant oedema to 80–120mg daily. Through a slow intravenous injection, Neonate 0.5–1mg/kg every 12–24 hours (every 24 hours if corrected gestational age under 31 weeks), Child 1 month–12 years 0.5–1mg/kg repeated every 8 hours as necessary; max. 2mg/kg (max. 40mg) every 8 hours and a Child 12–18 years 20–40mg repeated every 8 hours as necessary; higher doses may be required in resistant cases Through a continuous intravenous infusion ,Child 1 month–18 years 0.1–2mg/kg/hour (following cardiac surgery, initially 100micrograms/kg/hour, doubled every 2 hours until urine output exceeds 1mL/kg/hour) The Pharmacokinetic properties as stated by the Electronic Medicine Compendium of Furosemide are that it is a weak carboxylic acid which exists in the gastro-intestinal tract. Furosemide is rapidly absorbed but 60-70% id absorbed on oral administration within the upper duodenum at PH level 5.0. Furosemide binds to albumin proteins and the volume of distribution ranges between 170 – 270 ml/Kg. 69-97% is excreted in the first four hours after the drug is given and 80-90% of Furosemide is excreted through the kidneys. Reference list Tortora, G.T. and Derrickson, B.H. (2009) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology: Organisation, Support, Movement, and Control Systems of the Human Body. 12th ed. Asia: John Wiley and Sons. Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E. (2010) Textbook of Medical Physiology. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier Inc. NHS Choices (2014) High Blood Pressure Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Blood-pressure-(high)/Pages/Introduction.aspx [Accessed 19.11.2014]. NHS GOSH (2012) Childhood nephrotic syndrome information Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/nephrotic-syndrome/Pages/Introduction.aspx [Accessed 22.11.2014] BNF for Children (2014-2015) FUROSEMIDE Available from: https://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/bnfc/current/PHP11437-lasix.htm?q=furosemidet=searchss=textp=3#PHP11437-lasix [Accessed 23.11.2014] Electronic Medicine Compendium (2014) Furosemide 10mg/ml Solution for Injection or Infusion, 20mg in 2ml and 250mg in 25ml Available from: https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/20958 [Accessed 23.11.2014]

Essay on the Oppression of Ophelia in Hamlet -- Essays on Shakespeare H

Male Oppression of Ophelia in Hamlet  Ã‚   In The Tragedy of Hamlet, Shakespeare developed the story of prince Hamlet, and the murder of his father by the king's brother, Claudius. Hamlet reacted to this event with an internal battle that harmed everyone around him. Ophelia was the character most greatly impacted by Hamlet's feigned and real madness - she first lost her father, her sanity, and then her life. Ophelia, obedient, weak-willed, and no feminist role model, deserves the most pity of any character in the play.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the play opened, Hamlet and Ophelia appeared as lovers experiencing a time of turbulence. Hamlet had just returned home from his schooling in Saxony to find that his mother had quickly remarried her dead husband's brother, and this gravely upset him. Hamlet was sincerely devoted to the idea of bloodline loyalty and sought revenge upon learning that Claudius had killed his father. Ophelia, though it seems her relationship with Hamlet is in either the developmental stage or the finalizing stage, became the prime choice as a lure for Hamlet. Laertes inadvertently opened Ophelia up to this role when he spoke with Ophelia about Hamlet before leaving for France. He allowed Polonius to find out about Hamlet's courtship of Ophelia, which led to Polonius' misguided attempts at taking care of Ophelia and obeying the king's command to find the root of Hamlet's problems. Ophelia, placed in the middle against her wishes, obeyed her father and brother 's commands with little disagreement. The only time she argued was when Laertes advised her against making decisions incompatible with the expectations of Elizabethan women. Ophelia tells him, in her boldest lines of the play:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "But, my good brother, ... ...She had lost her father and her lover while her brother was away for school, and she was no longer useful as a puppet in a greater scheme. Ophelia was displaced, an Elizabethan woman without the men on whom she had been taught to depend. Therein lies the problem - she lacked independence so much that she could not continue living without Polonius, Laertes, and Hamlet. Ophelia's aloneness led to her insanity and death. The form of her death was the only fitting end for her - she drowned in a nearby river, falling beneath the gentle waters. She finally found peace in her mad world. That is how Ophelia is so useful as a classic feminist study - she evokes imagery of the fragile beauty women are expected to become, but shows what happens to women when they submit as such. Works Cited: Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. David Bevington. New York: Longman, 1997.

Endangered Languages Essay

Languages that are threatened with the loss of natural generational transmission are referred to as endangered languages. Language endangerment generally occurs in the later stages of language shift, that is, when a speech community moves away from their earlier variety, dialect, or language to a new one or new set thereof (Fishman, 1991). While the processes of endangerment and extinction have likely been constant throughout the history of human language, the scale and the pace of this loss—whose cumulative effect is the reduction of linguistic diversity—in the modern era appears to be uniquely intense, with up to half or more of the currently estimated 5,000–6,000 languages spoken today expected to be lost within a century or so (Hale et al. , 1992). Both the nature of this loss and its consequences are complex and involve deep psychosocial factors as much as purely linguistic ones. Two common reactions to language endangerment include language revitalization and linguistic documentation, both of which present extensive challenges and opportunities for applied linguistics. The sources of language endangerment are not uniform, but do generally present recurrent themes on both the broader external social/political/economic and the narrower community-internal and individual scales, corresponding in broad strokes to what Grenoble and Whaley (1998) refer to as macro- and micro-factors. From the macro-factor perspective, language shift can occur from sheer population loss of a speech community, due to war, disease, famine, or rather commonly, economically motivated outmigration, that is, dispersal into a diaspora that makes daily use of a given language no longer practical or meaningful/effective. Demographically stable communities, however, experience language endangerment just as readily when they are induced to shift for other reasons. Loss of prestige is a very common factor: It can be introduced through schooling, often reinforced by physical or social/emotional punishment of young speakers, or simply as a social contempt expressed in adult society by speakers of the dominant to the minority. As dominant languages are typically those spoken by the socioeconomically dominant, language shift is very often rationalized—both on the part of the speech community itself, or by outsiders—via ideological narratives of economic practicality, or homogeneous national identity. Hence, while there are exceptions, language endangerment is most typically experienced by minority and socioeconomically marginalized populations. In addition to psychological internalization of the above factors, the internal or microfactor side of language loss has as a primary component the local disruption of the social spaces in which the language has normally been used, and the shrinking of the range of such spaces. As most endangered languages have a primarily oral tradition (or no written tradition at all), full acquisition and rich ? uency depends entirely on personal experience with other speakers. Reduction of the range of domains in which an individual can be exposed to the language commonly results in a feedback effect: otherwise ? uent speakers who have knowledge or performance gaps are judged as imperfect speakers by more broadly experienced speakers (typically though not exclusively elders), leading the former to avoid situations of language use even more, and so intensify the process of contraction. As the factors affecting transmission are very ? uid, languages can shift from stable to endangered extremely quickly, often within the space of one generation. For the same reason, endangerment is often not salient even as it happens, as since three coexisting generations of grandparent, parent, and child can represent complete ? uency, intermediate competence, and complete non-speaker status. One still-living full generation of ? uent speakers can and often does give the illusion that the language is not seriously threatened; even more so if the majority of the community are ambivalent or antipathetic with regard to maintaining the language. Language loss is not uniform, either. During the process of language shift, competence in the language can range from various degrees of ? ency, to â€Å"remembered† speaker (full ? uency from childhood but fallen into disuse), to rusty speaker (substantial but limited competence due to an early shift from the threatened language to another), to semi-speaker (characterized by imperfect acquisition of the complete earlier form of the language, due to limited exposure) (Sasse, 1992). From this can also emerge â€Å"young people’s languages†: complete but markedly distinct variants of the source language used by younger generations that have been substantially altered by these sorts of incomplete transmission processes (Schmidt, 1985). Even after a speech community is reduced beyond even one notional native speaker, a language or features thereof can persist: in more or less full lexicogrammatical form as a liturgical or literary language, or both (as in the case of Hebrew, Latin, and Classical Greek, among others), or as a set of rote-memorized ceremonial phraseology, or as features in? uencing the variety of the replacing language(s) now spoken by descendants of the former speech community. The lexical, phonological, and syntactic in? ence of Irish Gaelic on varieties of English now spoken monolingually in Ireland is a frequently cited example. Semantic and pragmatic features of the earlier language too may cross over. Mixed languages may also persist after a community has shifted away from an original contributory language. Michif and Media Lengua—results of contact between French and Cree, and Spanish and Quechua, respectively—for example, have replaced the indigenous source language in some commu nities; such mixed languages can and do also exist alongside populations continuing to speak their source languages. Complete language loss itself can be problematicized. The notion of dormant or â€Å"sleeping† language has been developed for languages that have experienced complete disruption of natural generation-to-generation transmission, but that persist in substantial enough recorded form to permit the possibility of revival as a useable linguistic instrument (Leonard, 2007). Wampanoag and Miami represent two (Algonquian) languages currently being actively revived by descendants of the original speech communities, to the extent that children are being raised with the revived language as one of their ? st languages. Israeli Hebrew is perhaps the most famous case of a sleeping language subsequently revived as a full-? edged daily use language. Zuckerman (2009) and Leonard (2007) offer thorough discussions of the relationship between such revived languages and their source(s), particularly the ? rst languages of their revivers. Finally, the application of the terms endangered and extinct have both been called into question as inherently stigmatizing and, particularly when the latter is applied to dormant languages, inaccurate, and disenfranchising (Rinehart, 2006). The current intensity of language loss can be attributed both to essentially technological factors such as increased mobility (physical, social, and economic), telecommunications, popular media, education, and also to ideological and political factors such as the spread of the notionally homogeneous nation-state and cultural imperialisms of various kinds. Language endangerment is thus strongly connected to other types of sociocultural dislocation. With the loss of a given language also ripple out a host of ancillary losses. While loss of traditional language need not entail complete loss of traditional culture, language loss is more often than not accompanied by loss of bodies of knowledge traditionally passed on via the language, ranging from the ceremonial/religious, historical, literary/rhetorical, technological, medical, and so on (Harrison, 2007; Evans, 2010); it is often observed that the loss of a language results in the loss of a whole unique worldview implicitly and explicitly encoded in language-speci? c form and usage. For discussion of how language loss affects and re? cts the broader questions of biocultural/intellectual diversity, see Fishman (1982), Maf? (2001), and Dalby (2003), as well as Harrison (2007) and Evans (2010). Often generational transmission of social norms and values is affected when languages are lost; as is coherent community identity. A traditional language frequently functions as a pervasive and potent marker of membership therein: both emotional and intellectual connections to previous/ancestral generations can be rendered much more tenuous with its loss. Sheer grief (and at times even shame) at the loss of a cherished part of personal, familial, and community heritage is a situation-speci? c but very common experience, salient and wrenching to its affectees, even as it can be missed or underplayed by strictly materialistic/utilitarian approaches to the role of language in human life. For linguistics and related cognitive sciences, what is lost is the opportunity to investigate the full diversity of human linguistic potential. This is particularly crucial in the testing of universal claims about possible versus impossible human linguistic systems. Currently endangered and recently extinct languages have all offered unique contributions to the understanding of human language and by extension, human cognition. Damin, an auxiliary language traditionally used among the Lardil of Wellesley Island, North Queensland, Australia, for example, uses several phonetic mechanisms not found in any other known languages (and the only known click systems outside of southern Africa). It also exhibits an unparalleled intellectual creation: a carefully semantically abstracted lexicon of approximately 200 elements that can express the full range of the everyday Lardil language’s much richer system (Hale, 1998). Many other features of human language which are evidently quite common as possible grammatical options remain under-researched and poorly understood because they are, by historical accident, chie? y only found in languages that are currently endangered/threatened: among others, these include polysynthesis, switch reference, and complex evidential contrasts. At present there are two frequent active responses to language endangerment (i. e. , beyond simple acceptance): language revitalization and language documentation. Both pose interesting challenges for applied linguistics. At the time of this writing, there is an emergent consensus (though see Newman, 1998, for an alternative view) that it is incumbent upon linguists (and policymakers) to support language revitalization, namely, active efforts to recover and restore an endangered language to active daily use in a speech community (Hinton & Hale, 2001; for introductory handbooks, see Hinton, 2002, and Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). Simultaneously, an effort has emerged to document as many features of endangered languages as possible before their potential or even likely disappearance. Currently several institutions have been established that speci? cally support language documentation (see Online Resources). While language documentation of course can contribute substantially to language revitalization, the priorities of each do not necessarily overlap completely. Since unambiguous examples of thoroughly successful language revitalization efforts are still quite rare, focusing on documentation rather than revitalization can, particularly in academic circles, be seen as a more realistic use of limited resources to address language loss (see Bowern & James, 2010, for a challenge to this view). That said, documentation and revitalization efforts more often than not go hand in hand, particularly because endangered language speech communities typically expect documentation (still most often done by outsiders) to contribute substantially to revitalization efforts.

Decision Making Process WRT Consumer Behavior

Question 1. Explain Decision making process and various types of decision with examples? Ans: Decision making can be regarded as the mental processes (Cognitive process) resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice. Developed by B. Aubrey Fisher, there are four stages that should be involved in all group decision making.These stages, or sometimes called phases, are important for the decision-making process to begin Orientation stage- This phase is where members meet for the first time and start to get to know each other. Conflict stage- Once group members become familiar with each other, disputes, little fights and arguments occur. Group members eventually work it out. Emergence stage- The group begins to clear up vague opinions by talking about them. Reinforcement stage- Members finally make a decision, while justifying themselves that i t was the right decision.When in an organization and faced with a difficult decision, there are several steps one can take to ensure the best possible solutions will be decided. These steps are put into seven effective ways to go about this decision making process. An Example illustrating Decision Making Process in an Organization * The first step – Outline your goal and outcome. This will enable decision makers to see exactly what they are trying to accomplish and keep them on a specific path. * The second step – Gather data. This will help decision makers have actual evidence to help them come up with a solution. The third step – Brainstorm to develop alternatives. Coming up with more than one solution ables you to see which one can actually work. * The fourth step – List pros and cons of each alternative. With the list of pros and cons, you can eliminate the solutions that have more cons than pros, making your decision easier. * The fifth step – Make the decision. Once you analyze each solution, you should pick the one that has many pros (or the pros that are most significant), and is a solution that everyone can agree with. * The sixth step – Immediately take action.Once the decision is picked, you should implement it right away. * The seventh step – Learn from, and reflect on the decision making. This step allows you to see what you did right and wrong when coming up, and putting the decision to use. Another example showing Decision Making Process with respect to consumer behavior. This model is important for anyone making marketing decisions. It forces the marketer to consider the whole buying process rather than just the purchase decision (when it may be too late for a business to influence the choice! The model implies that customers pass through all stages in every purchase. However, in more routine purchases, customers often skip or reverse some of the stages. For example, a student buying a favourite hamburger would recognise the need (hunger) and go right to the purchase decision, skipping information search and evaluation. However, the model is very useful when it comes to understanding any purchase that requires some thought and deliberation.The buying process starts with need recognition. At this stage, the buyer recognises a problem or need (e. g. I am hungry, we need a new sofa, I have a headache) or responds to a marketing stimulus (e. g. you pass Starbucks and are attracted by the aroma of coffee and chocolate muffins). An â€Å"aroused† customer then needs to decide how much information (if any) is required. If the need is strong and there is a product or service that meets the need close to hand, then a purchase decision is likely to be made there and then. If not, then the process of information search begins. A customer can obtain information from several sources: †¢ Personal sources: family, friends, neighbours etc Commercial sources: advertising; salesp eople; retailers; dealers; packaging; point-of-sale displays †¢ Public sources: newspapers, radio, television, consumer organisations; specialist magazines †¢ Experiential sources: handling, examining, using the product The usefulness and influence of these sources of information will vary by product and by customer. Research suggests that customer’s value and respect personal sources more than commercial sources (the influence of â€Å"word of mouth†). The challenge for the marketing team is to identify which information sources are most influential in their target markets.In the evaluation stage, the customer must choose between the alternative brands, products and services. An important determinant of the extent of evaluation is whether the customer feels â€Å"involved† in the product. By involvement, we mean the degree of perceived relevance and personal importance that accompanies the choice. Where a purchase is â€Å"highly involving†, th e customer is likely to carry out extensive evaluation. High-involvement purchases include those involving high expenditure or personal risk – for example buying a house, a car or making investments. Low involvement purchases (e. . buying a soft drink, choosing some breakfast cereals in the supermarket) have very simple evaluation processes. Post-purchase evaluation – Cognitive Dissonance The final stage is the post-purchase evaluation of the decision. It is common for customers to experience concerns after making a purchase decision. This arises from a concept that is known as â€Å"cognitive dissonance†. The customer, having bought a product, may feel that an alternative would have been preferable. In these circumstances that customer will not repurchase immediately, but is likely to switch brands next time.To manage the post-purchase stage, it is the job of the marketing team to persuade the potential customer that the product will satisfy his or her needs. T hen after having made a purchase, the customer should be encouraged that he or she has made the right decision. Question 2. Take any international country of your choice and list down their social, cultural, lifestyle, business etiquettes and trade practices in detail? Ans: Country in Discussion: Nigeria Social / Cultural and Life Style Background The culture of Nigeria is shaped by Nigeria's multiple ethnic groups. The country has over 50 languages and over 250 dialects and ethnic groups.The three largest ethnic groups are the Hausa-Fulani who are predominant in the north, the Igbo who are predominant in the south-east, and the Yoruba who are predominant in the southwest. The Edo people are predominant in the region between Yorubaland and Igboland. Much of the Edo tends to be Christian while the remaining 20 percent worship deities called Ogu. This group is followed by the Ibibio/Annang/Efik people of the coastal southeastern Nigeria and the Ijaw of the Niger Delta. The rest of Nig eria's ethnic groups (sometimes called ‘minorities') are found all over the country but especially in the middle belt and north.The Hausa tend to be Muslim and the Igbo are predominantly Christian. The Efik, Ibibio, Annang people are mainly Christian. The Yoruba have a balance of members that are adherent to both Islam and Christianity. Indigenous religious practices remain important in all of Nigeria's ethnic groups, these beliefs are often blended with Christian beliefs. Nigeria is famous for its English language literature and its popular music. Since the 1990s the Nigerian movie industry, sometimes called " Nollywood" has emerged as a fast-growing cultural force all over the continent.All over the country, and even increasingly in the conservative north, western music, dresses and movies are ever popular. The music of Nigeria includes many kinds of folk and popular music, some of which are known worldwide. Traditional musicians use a number of diverse instruments , such as the Gongon drums Football (soccer) is extremely popular throughout the country and especially among the youth, both field soccer and professional international soccer, has developed into a cult of unity and division.Supporters of English football clubs Manchester United, Arsenal, Liverpool and Chelsea often segregate beyond the traditional tribal and even religious divide to share their common cause in Premier League teams. The Nigeria national football team, nicknamed the Super Eagles, is the national team of Nigeria and is controlled by the Nigeria Football Federation (NFF). Nigerian food embellishes a rich blend of traditionally African carbohydrates such as Yam and Cassava as well as vegetable soups made from native green leaves.Praised by Nigerians for the strength it gives, Garri is a powdered Cassava Grain that can be readily eaten as a meal and is quite cheap. Yam is either fried in oil or pounded to make a Mashed Potato like Yam pottage. Nigerian beans, quite diff erent from green peas, is widely popular. Meat is also popular and Nigerian Suya, a barbecue like method of roasting meat, is a well known delicacy. Bush meat, meat from wild game like deer and giraffes is also popular. Fermented palm products is used to make a traditional liquor, Palm Wine, as is fermented Cassava.Business Background in Nigeria The fact that Nigeria is not a magnet for international investment could be seen as a tragedy of immense proportions. Years of political instability, regional strife and the weakening influence of massive corruption have resulted in the country failing to capitalize on its many advantages; leaving the mass of the population in relative poverty and the country enormously infra-structure poor. A large number of international organizations and business people have been wary of doing business in Nigeria for many years.This may seem strange given that Nigeria is one of the most populous countries in Africa as well as being one of the most oil-ric h places in the world. Couple this with the fact that the country is abundant in many other natural resources and has good port facilities and you might think that international business would be fighting for a piece of the action in Nigeria. Huge strides have been made in the last few years to try to tackle the many endemic problems which assail the country — with political and economic stability being seen as the key weapons in attacking the corrosive influence of corruption.Whether the actions being taken on the ground now lead to dramatic improvements in levels of transparency and levels of corporate governance remain to be seen — in the meantime, the country struggles along and those doing business in Nigeria need to be aware of the issues that await them. Business Etiquettes Nigerians like to use language in a fairly flowery fashion and will often address you with great courtesy and overt signs of respect. This desire to show respect to people is shown in the Nig erian use of titles and honorifics.People will often be addressed as Uncle, Auntie, Chief, Mazi, Doctor etc. rather than by the use of first names. Business conversations will often veer towards the personal and you may be asked questions about family, hobbies and other interests within business meetings. This is an important section of the meeting and should be treated as such. It is not seen as overly personal but rather as a signal of warmth and friendship. Handshaking is very important and it is usual to exchange long, lingering handshakes with everybody you meet. Nigerian Management StyleAs you would expect in a strictly hierarchical culture, managers are expected to lead quite strongly. The boss is expected to make decisions (with or without wider consultation) and the decisions of the boss are expected to be carried out to the letter. Directions should be given in a polite and friendly but definitive fashion. Spell out in detail what needs to be done — anything which i s not explicitly requested, is likely to remain undone. This does not mean that subordinates are inefficient or lazy, merely that they expect the boss to know exactly what he wants to happen and to explain things to them fully.It is important to dress well in Nigeria as the way you are dressed will signal your relative level of importance. Men should wear dark suits and ties and women should wear dark, demure business-style suits. In return for loyalty, the manager will often take on a paternalistic role with regard to colleagues. The manager is expected to take an interest in subordinates beyond their directly work-related duties. People are as likely to ask the boss advice on personal matters as they are on business issues. Indigenous Nigerian companies will, however, have an approach and flavor all of their own.All native Nigerian companies will display massively hierarchical tendencies as befits a country rich in tribal tradition and culture. Thus the boss expects and receives r espect from those below them in the structure. As age is highly valued in Nigerian culture, managers are often of the older generation — age brings wisdom. Although people at a middle-management level will like to give the impression that they have great power in the organization, they rarely do. Decisions are invariably made right at the top, so try not to waste too much time trying to force decisions out of more junior employees.If possible, go right to the top. This does not, however, mean that people lower down the corporate structure can be ignored as they may very well be pivotal in influencing the eventual decision-maker. As a relationship-oriented culture, it is important to be seen to be trying hard to develop good relationships at all levels within the organization. Economic Facts previously hindered by years of mismanagement, economic reforms of the past decade have put Nigeria back on track towards achieving its full economic potential. Nigerian GDP at purchasing power parity more than doubled from $170. 7 billion in 2005 to $374. billion in 2010, although estimates of the size of the informal sector (which is not included in official figures) put the actual numbers closer to $520 billion. Correspondingly, the GDP per capita doubled from $1200 per person in 2005 to an estimated $2,500 per person in 2009 (again, with the inclusion of the informal sector, it is estimated that GDP per capita hovers around $3,500 per person). It is the largest economy in the West Africa Region, 3rd largest economy in Africa (behind South Africa and Egypt), and on track to becoming one of the top 30 economies in the world in the early part of 2011.Although much has been made of its status as a major exporter of oil, Nigeria produces only about 3. 3% of the world's supply, and though it is ranked as 15th in production at 2. 2 million barrels per day (mbpd), the top 3 producers Saudi Arabia, Russia, and the United States produce 10. 7mbpd (16. 8%), 9. 8mbpd (15. 4% ), and 8. 5mbpd (13. 4%) respectively, collectively accounting for 63. 6mpd (45. 4%) of the world's total production. [2] To put oil revenues in perspective: at an estimated export rate of 1. 9mbd, with a projected sales price of $65 per barrel in 2011, Nigeria's anticipated revenue from petroleum is about $52. billion. This accounts for less than 14% of official GDP figures (and drops to 10% when the informal economy is included in these calculations). Therefore, though the petroleum sector is important, it remains in fact a small part of the country's overall vibrant and diversified economy. The largely subsistence agricultural sector has not kept up with rapid population growth, and Nigeria, once a large net exporter of food, now imports some of its food products. In 2006, Nigeria successfully convinced the Paris Club to let it buy back the bulk of its debts owed to the Paris Club for a cash payment of roughly $12 billion (USD).Trade Practices: The Federal Government plays the ro le of protecting local industries and the labor market from unfair competitions and trade practices of developed countries. While Nigerian government appreciates that the world is a global village, in terms of exchange of goods, services and persons, it will not open the nation‘s borders to the influx of foreigners in whatever guise without considering the security and economic implication inherent in the administration of Expatriate Quota and other immigration formality. While it is true that Nigeria as a developing country needs to benefit from the xperiences and technology of the advanced nations, it is important that we protect our local manpower by ensuring that jobs that are meant for Nigerians are not occupied by foreigners in order to stem the unemployment rate in the country. Although the world is a global village and the WTO preaches free trade or liberalization of trade, it is the government’s duty both individually and as government to protect our local indu stries and markets in order to avoid being reduced to mere consumers of labor and technology of the advanced nations.Their focus at all times should be to develop indigenous technology, local capacity building for both our industries and markets". Also, the administration of Expatriate Quota helps attract foreign direct investment; fast track economic development; transfer technology through importation of modern machinery and equipment; build and enhance local capacity and skills; institutionalize Nigerian understudies attached to Expatriates and for appropriate documentation.ALTERNATIVE TRADE NETWORK OF NIGERIA (ATNN) The Alternative Trade Network of Nigeria (ATNN) was established in 1994 with 25 artisans drawn from different parts of Nigeria as a Non Governmental Trade and Development Network. It was formerly registered with Corporate Affairs Commissions Abuja on the 7th January 1999 as an Incorporated Trustee with a five member Governing Board. The daily operations of the n etwork are coordinated by program staff and team of volunteers under the leadership of the Director.ATNN is a registered pioneer member of the International Fair Trade Association (IFAT) formed in 1994 now the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO) and also a founding member of the Cooperation for Fair Trade in Africa (COFTA) with its Africa Regional Office based in Nairobi, Kenya. With a founding membership of 25 artisans and groups, ATNN membership has grown to 120 cooperatives, groups and individuals (over 3616 individuals) engage in both food and Non food products from different parts of Nigeria who are grass root based and committed to the principles and standards of fair trade. 3% of the current membership is women, employing over 3616 people. 1774 apprentices have also been trained and are now self employed and running their business in different areas of micro enterprises. ATNN has the following thematic areas of intervention 1. Fair Trade Market Access, Retailing and Export T rading†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ This program provides unique solutions to specific members based on identified needs, level of business development, size, structure, markets, retailing and other trading opportunities. 2. Producer Development, Community Mobilization and Empowerment.This program engages participatory method of development of both formal and informal groups of producers and communities in identifying and establishing core strength and weaknesses and collective designing of sustainable and achievable business solutions. 3. Fair Trade Advocacy and Economic Rights†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ The objective of this program is to develop and disseminate appropriate fair trade information to raise beneficiary's awareness and stake holder's interest and support for effective and proactive fair trade participations.It also highlights and lobby against unethical business, production and trade practices and policies that are detrimental to community growth, environmental protection and other impacts that are related to sustainable production and development. The Alternative Trade Network of Nigeria believes in fostering an accelerated producers businesses development and sustainable income through developing, consolidating and advancing the core mission and objectives of the global fair Trade Movement within Nigeria, Africa and the world over.This is achieved through the offering and provision of technical guidance, market support, networking and awareness rising for favorable trade policies and micro business development measures. ATNN, in its business development services also ensures that producers do not just access profitable markets, but produce quality products and get appropriate value for their labor. ATNN generally desires to achieve the following: 1. Increased and improved business skills