The High Voltage Electricity Transmission Network Engineering Essay

The High Voltage Electricity Transmission Network Engineering Essay It is well known to many people that high voltage electricity transmission network represents the backbone of the whole regional power supply scheme in the country. The main purpose of this research is analyzing the most frequent common failures in the HV transmission lines and understanding the actual reasons behind these failures in the transmission network of a private electrical company in the Sultanate of Oman named OETC Oman Electricity Transmission Company. The business of that company is providing, developing and governing the Electrical Transmission System in the Sultanate of Oman. The data presented and information provided hereafter shall be considered extremely confidential and hence the assignment information is intended only for the use of this assignment and shall not be distributed to any other party without permission from the original source. In the start, the assignment firstly provides a brief explanation about the company and its role of electricity distribution. Then, it further analyzes different types of equipment failures that are encountered with HV network operation and reported by a local company. It sums up on general findings, results, conclusion and the recommendation regarding future maintenance. Electricity supply Oman Electricity Transmission Company OETC operates, organizes and maintains the majority HV transmission system in which electrical power is transmitted through 220kV and 132kV transmission lines to load centers in Muscat Governorate and the regions of Dakhliyah, Batinah, Dhahirah and Sharqiyah. It dispatches power from all Centrally Dispatched Generation Stations owned by the following companies: (1). 1. Ghubrah Power Desalination Station 2. Rusail Power Station 3. Wadi Jizzi Power Station 4. Manah Power Station 5. Al Kamil Power Station 6. Barka Power Desalination Station 7. Sohar Power Station The power transmitted by the company is delivered to the following distribution companies, which are licensed to distribute and supply power in a range lower than 132kV voltage (i.e. 66kV, 33kV,11kV and 0.415kV): 1. Muscat Electricity Distribution Company (MEDC) for Muscat area 2. Mazoon Electricity Company (MZEC) for South Batinah, Dakhliyah and Sharqiyah regions 3. Majan Electricity Company (MJEC) for North Batinah and Dhahirah regions Fundamentals of Power Generation and Transmission After the electricity leaves a power generation (1), the voltage is increased at a step-up grid substation (2). Subsequently, the energy travels along a transmission line to the area where the power is needed (3). Once there, the voltage is decreased, or stepped-down, at another primary substation (4), and a distribution power line (5) carries the electricity until it reaches a home or business (8). (1) Fig -1 Electrical Power System (1) Overhead Lines The main components of the HV high voltage power transmission are; the overhead towers, conductors, insulators, lightning arrestors, CVT CT and cable sealing ends. It has been well recognized since the starting of electric power generation that overhead transmission lines (OHL) have represented the most important component for the electric power transmission and distribution. The over head transmission line generally dedicated for high voltage range, while the buried type (underground cables) are commonly used in lower voltage range for the distribution purpose. However, in Oman, both systems are used in various applications depending on the cost, development conditions and topography constraints. OETC has planned, designed and erected overhead power lines for various voltage levels in many parts of the sultanate of Oman. Line voltage Selection According to IEC 60038 there are standard voltage ranges used for the electric power transmission and distribution. The following are the main voltage levels For 3-phase AC power supply: -Low voltage range from 220v up to 1 kV AC Medium voltage range from 1 kV to 36 kV AC High voltage range from 52 kV to 765 kV AC) and higher Generally the Low-voltage transmission and distribution networks serve households and other small business consumers. Networks on the medium-voltage level usually supply larger buildings and settlements, industrial plants and other large consumers; the power supply capacity is typically less than 10 MVA per circuit. The high voltage ranges up to 145 kV are usually used for sub-transmission of the electric power regionally, and also feed the medium-voltage electric network. This level is frequently selected to support the medium-voltage level even when electric power is lower than 10 MVA. Moreover, some of high-voltage transmission lines are also used to transmit the electric power from medium size power plants, like hydro power plants on water streams, channel or rivers, and provide electric power for large-scale units, such as considerable power plants or steel factories. The bandwidth of electrical transported power corresponds to the broad range of utilization, but it rarely exceeds 100 MVA per circuit, while the surge impedance load is 35 MVA (approximately). In most European countries, the high voltage lines of 245 kV were greatly used in interconnection of power supply systems and this before the 420 kV level was brought to this purpose. Nowadays, the usage of 245 kV lines is decreased to some extent due to the availability of the 420 kV transmission network. The 420 kV level represents the highest operation voltage used for AC transmission in Central Europe. It typically interconnects the power supply systems and transmits the energy over long distances. Some 420 kV lines connect the national grids of the individual European countries enabling interconnected network operation (UCTE = Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity) throughout Europe. Large power plants such as nuclear stations feed directly into the 420 kV network. The thermal capacity of the 420 kV circuits may reach 2,000 MVA, with a surge impedance load of approximately 600 MVA and a transmission capacity up to 1,200 MVA.[SIEMENS Power Engineering Guide 2 009]11 Selection of conductors and earth wires Electric conductors are the main important part in the overhead power line network and they must be selected carefully for the electric transmission lines because this will ensure economical and reliable transmission and contribute directly to the total line costs. Therefore, to achieve better economic solution, aluminum and its alloys have been used as conducting materials for power lines due to the favorable price, the low weight and the necessity of certain minimum cross-sections. On the other side, aluminum is a very corrosive metal. But when a dense oxide layer is formed it can stop further corrosion. Therefore, up to a certain level, aluminum conductors are well-suited for areas in which corrosion is an issue, such as humid climate in areas located near coastal zone. Generally, there are a number of different designs in use for aluminum conductors. As an advantage, All-aluminum conductors (AAC) have the highest conductivity for a given cross-section; however, they possess relat ively low mechanical strength, which limits their installation to short spans and low tensile forces. To increase the mechanical strength, aluminum wires are made of mixing with other alloys like aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys. In this way, the strength can be increased approximately twice that of pure aluminum. But practically, all-aluminum and aluminum alloy conductors have exhibited some susceptibility to vibrations. To solve this problem, compound conductors with a steel core, so-called aluminum conductor, steel-reinforced (ACSR), can avoid this disadvantage. The ratio between aluminum and steel ranges from 4.3:1 to 11:1. An aluminum-to-steel ratio of 6.0 or 7.7 provides an economical solution. Conductors with a ratio of 4.3 should be used for lines installed in regions with heavy wind and ice loads. Conductors with a ratio higher than 7.7 provide higher conductivity. But because of lower conductor strength, the sags are bigger, which requires higher towers. Experience has shown that ACSR conductors, just like aluminum and aluminum alloy conductors, provide the most economical solution and offer a life span greater than 40 years. Conductors are selected according to electrical, thermal, mechanical and economic aspects. The electric resistance as a result of the conducting material and its cross-section is the most important feature affecting the voltage drop and the energy losses along the line and, therefore, the transmission costs. The cross-section has to be selected so that the permissible temperatures will not be exceeded during normal operation as well as under short-circuit condition. With increasing cross-section, the line costs increase, while the costs for losses decrease. Depending on the length of the line and the power to be transmitted, a cross-section can be determined that results in the lowest transmission costs. The heat balance of ohmic losses and solar radiation against convection and radiation determines the conductor temperature. A current density of 0.5 to 1.0 A/mm2 based on the aluminum cross-section has proven to be an economical solution in most cases. [SIEMENS Power Engineering Guide 2009] (9) The table below shows the characteristics of AC overhead lines (data refer to a one circuit of a double-circuit line) Table -1 characteristic of AC overhead lines (9) High-voltage results in correspondingly high-voltage gradients at the conductors surface, and in corona-related effects such as visible discharges, radio interference, audible noise and energy losses. When selecting the conductors, the AC voltage gradient has to be limited to values between 15 and 17 kV/cm. Since the sound of the audible noise of DC lines is mainly caused at the positive pole and this sound differs from those of AC lines, the subjective feeling differs as well. Therefore, the maximum surface voltage gradient of DC lines is higher than the gradient for AC lines. A maximum value of 25 kV/cm is recommended. The line voltage and the conductor diameter are one of the main factors that infl uence the surface voltage gradient. In order to keep this gradient below the limit value, the conductor can be divided into subconductors. This results in an equivalent conductor diameter that is bigger than the diameter of a single conductor with the same cross-section. This aspect is important for lines with voltages of 245 kV and above. Therefore, so-called bundle conductors are mainly adopted for extra-high-voltage lines. Table 2.5-2 shows typical conductor configurations for AC lines. From a mechanical point of view, the conductors have to be designed for everyday conditions and for maximum loa ds exerted on the conductor by wind and ice. As a rough figure, an everyday stress of approximately 20 % of the conductor rated tensile stress can be adopted, resulting in a limited risk of conductor damage. The maximum working tensile stress should be limited to approximately 40 % of the rated tensile stress. Earth wires, also called shield wire or earth wire, can protect a line against direct lightning strikes and improve system behavior in the event of short-circuits; therefore, lines with single-phase voltages of 110 kV and above are usually equipped with earth wires. Earth wires made of ACSR conductors with a sufficiently high aluminum cross-section satisfy both requirements. Since the beginning of the 1990s, more and more earth wires for extra-high-voltage overhead power lines have been executed as optical earth wires (OPGW). This type of earth wire combines the functions just described for the typical earth wire with the additional facility for large data transfer capacity vi a optical fi bers that are integrated into the OPGW. Such data transfer is essential for the communication between two converter stations within an HVDC interconnection or for remote controlling of power stations. The OPGW in such a case becomes the major communication link within the interconnection. OPGW are mainly designed in one or more layers of aluminum alloy and/or aluminum-clad steel wires. One-layer designs are used in areas with low keraunic levels (small amount of possible lightning strikes per year) and small short-circuit levels. [SIEMENS Power Engineering Guide 2009](9) Selection of insulators Usually, insulators in the overhead line are subject to electrical and mechanical stresses, because they have to isolate the conductors form potential to earth and must provide physical supports. Therefore, Insulators must be capable of withstanding these stresses under all conditions encountered in a transmission line. Normally, the electrical stresses result from: The steady-state operating power-frequency voltage (highest operation voltage of the system) Temporary over voltages occurred at specific power frequency Switching and lightning over voltages Chapter -2 Introduction Electrical insulators are very critical and important component in the electric power systems such as distribution transmission lines. Previously, the electrical insulators which is made of ceramic and glass materials. But in 1963, a polymeric insulator were developed and its improvements in design and manufacturing in the modern years have made it attractive to utilities. polymeric insulator consists of a fibreglass core rod covered by weather-sheds or skirts of polymer such as silicone rubber, equipped with metal end fittings. It is also called composite insulators, which means made of at least two insulating parts a core and housing equipped with end fittings. Polymeric insulators have many advantages over the ceramic and glass insulators such as good performance in contaminated environment, light weight, easy handling, maintenance free, and considerably low cost etc. Because of these properties it is gaining popularity worldwide and replacing the conventional ceramic and glass insulators in many countries. Therefore, our research shall focus the light on the silicon rubber insulator and the main advantages can be achieved by using such type of electrical insulators. The following is a comparison showing the different factors between ceramic and composite insulators. FACTORS CERAMIC COMPOSITE Resistance to flashovers in Polluted atmosphere. Low High Resistance to puncture Puncturable (Class: B insulators) Not puncturable Resistance to Cracking and Erosion in Polluted atmosphere. Low High Contamination Pollution Highly affected Performance not affected Hydrophobicity Non hydrophobic. Unique Hydrophobicity character. Self cleaning property Due to Glaze and inclination of sheds. Due to Hydrophobicity recovery characteristic. Maintenance Needs maintenance like cleaning, washing, greasing. No maintenance is required Weight More 10% to 35% of Ceramic Insulator Resistance to breakage and Vandalism Breakable in Vandalism prone areas Unbreakable Artificial Pollution Test Mandatory Not applicable Power Arc Test Mandatory Not mandatory Table -1 comparison different factors between ceramic and composite insulators (10). Insulator types There are various insulator designs used in different applications, depending on the requirements and the application with certain insulator types: Cap-and-pin insulators (fig.2) are made of porcelain or pre-stressed glass. The individual units are connected by fittings of malleable cast iron or forged iron. The insulating bodies are not puncture-proof, which is the reason for a relatively high number of insulator failures. In Central Europe, long-rod insulators made from aluminous porcelain (fig.3) are most frequently adopted. These insulators are puncture-proof. Failures under operation are extremely rare. Long-rod insulators show superior behavior, especially in polluted areas. Because porcelain is a brittle material, porcelain long-rod insulators should be protected from bending loads by suitable fittings. Composite insulators are the third major type of insulator for overhead power line applications (fig.4). This insulator type provides superior performance and reliability, particularly because of improvements over the last 20 years, and has been in service for more than 30 years. Fig -2 Cap and pin (disc insulator) (9) Fig -3 Long-rod insulator with clevis cap (9) Fig -4 Glass fibre reinforced composite insulator with ball and socket fittings (Lapp insulator) (9) The composite insulator is made of a glass fiber reinforced epoxy rod. The glass fibers applied are ECR glass fibers that are resistant to brittle fracture (ECR = electrical grade corrosion resistant glass fibers). In order to avoid brittle fracture, the glass fiber rod must additionally be sealed very carefully and durably against moisture. This is done by application of silicone rubber. Nowadays, high temperature vulcanized (HTV) silicone is used. The silicone rubber has two functions within this insulator type: Sealing the glass fiber rod Molding into insulator sheds to establish the required insulation Metal fittings are compressed onto the glass fiber rod at both ends of the insulator, either with a ball socket or clevis connection fitting. Since the 1980s, compression fittings have been the prevailing type. The sealing of the area between fitting and silicone housing protecting the rod is most important, and is nowadays done with special silicone elastomer, which offers after vulcanization the characteristic of a sticky solid, similar to a fluid of high viscosity. Advantages of the composite long-rod insulator are: Light weight, less volume and less damages Shorter string length compared to cap-and-pin and porcelain long-rod insulator strings Up to 765 kV AC and 600 kV DC, only one unit of insulator (practical length is only limited by the ability of the production line) is required High mechanical strength Vandalism resistance High performance in polluted areas, based on the hydrophobicity (water repellency) of the silicone rubber Advantages of hydrophobicity are: Silicone rubber offers outstanding hydrophobicity over the long term; most other polymeric housing material will loose this property over time Silicone rubber is able to recover its hydrophobicity after a temporary loss of it The silicone rubber insulator is able to make pollution layers on its surface water-repellent, too (hydrophobicity transfer) Low surface conductivity, even with a polluted surface and very low leakage currents, even under wetted conditions. Insulator string sets Suspension insulator sets carry the conductor weight, including additional loads such as ice and wind, and are arranged more or less vertically. There are I-shaped (fig.5a) and V-shaped sets in use. Tension insulator sets (fig.5b, fig.5c) terminate the conductors and are arranged in the direction of the conductors. They are loaded by the conductor tensile force and have to be rated accordingly. Multiple single, double, triple or more sets handle the mechanical loadings and the design requirements. Fig -5a; I-shaped suspension insulator set for 245 kV (11) T Fig -5b&c; Double tension insulator set for 245 kV (Elevation, Top Plan, bottom) (9) The general electrical layout of insulation is ruled by the voltages to be withstood and the pollution to which the insulation is subjected. The standards IEC 60071-1 and IEC 60071-2 as well as the technical report IEC 60815, which provides four pollution classes, give guidance for the design of the insulation. Because IEC 60815 is applicable to AC lines, it should be noted that the creepage distances recommended are based on the phase-to-phase AC voltage (UL-L). When transferring these creepage distances recommended by IEC 60815 to a DC line, it should be noted that the DC voltage is a pole-to-earth value (UL-E). Therefore, these creepage distances have to be multiplied by the factor à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡3. Furthermore, it should be noted that the AC voltage value refers to a mean value, while the DC voltage is comparable to a peak value, which requires a further multiplication with factor à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡2. Insulators under DC voltage operation are subjected to more unfavorable conditions tha n they are under AC, due to a higher collection of surface contamination caused by the constant unidirectional electric field. Therefore, a DC pollution factor has to be applied. Table shown with figure 5a shows specific creepage distances for different insulator materials under AC and DC application, and is based on industry experience published by power supply companies in South Africa and China. The results shown were confirmed by an experienced insulator manufacturer in Germany. The correction factors shown are valid for porcelain insulators only. When taking composite insulators into consideration, an additional reduction factor of 0.75 can be applied. The values for a DC system must be seen as a guideline only, that must be verified on a case-by-case basis for new HVDC projects. To handle switching and lightning overvoltages, the insulator sets have to be designed with respect to insulation coordination according to IEC 60071-1 and IEC 60071-2. These design aspects determine the gap between the earthed fi ttings and the live part. However, for HVDC application, switching impulse levels are of minor important because circuit-breaker operations from AC lines do not occur on DC back-to-back lines. Such lines are controlled via their valve control systems. In order to coordinate the insulation in a proper way, it is recommended to apply and use the same SIL and BIL as is used for the equivalent AC insulation (determined by the arcing distance). [SIEMENS Power Engineering Guide 2009](9) Selection and design of supports Together with the line voltage, the number of circuits (AC) or poles (DC) and type of conductors, the configuration of the circuits poles determines the design of overhead power lines. Additionally, lightning protection by earth wires, the terrain and the available space at the tower sites have to be considered. In densely populated areas like Central Europe, the width of right-of-way and the space for the tower sites are limited. In the case of extra-high-voltages, the conductor configuration affects the electrical characteristics, the electrical and magnetic field and the transmission capacity of the line. Very often there are contradicting requirements, such as a tower height as low as possible and a narrow right-of-way, which can only be met by compromises. The minimum clearance of the conductors depends on the voltage and the conductor sag. In ice-prone areas, conductors should not be arranged vertically, in order to avoid conductor clashing after ice shedding. For low-voltage and medium-voltage lines, horizontal conductor configurations prevail; these configurations feature line post insulators as well as suspension insulators. Poles made of wood, concrete or steel are preferred. Fig.6 shows some typical line configurations. Earth wires are omitted at this voltage level. For high-voltage and extra-high-voltage power lines, a large variety of configurations are available that depend on the number of circuits (AC) or poles (DC) and on local conditions. Due to the very limited right-of-way, more or less all high voltage AC lines in Central Europe comprise at least two circuits. Fig.7 shows a series of typical tower configurations. Arrangement e is called the Danube configuration and is often adopted. It represents a fair compromise with respect to width of right-of-way, tower height and line costs. For AC lines comprising more than two circuits, there are many possibilities for configuring the supports. In the case of circuits with differing voltages, those circuits with the lower voltage should be arranged in the lowermost position (fig7g). DC lines are mechanically designed according to the normal practice for typical AC lines. The differences from AC Line layout are the: Conductor configuration Electric field requirements Insulation design For DC lines, two basic outlines (monopole and bipole), with variations should be considered. Fig.7i-l show examples for HVDC line configurations that are valid for all voltage levels. The arrangements of insulators depend on the application of a support within the line. Suspension towers support the conductors in straight-line sections and at small angles. This tower type offers the lowest costs; special attention should therefore be paid to using this tower type as often as possible. Angle towers have to carry the conductor tensile forces at angle points of the line. The tension insulator sets permanently transfer high forces from the conductors to the supports. Finally, dead-end towers are used at the terminations of a transmission line. They carry the total conductor tensile forces on the line side (even under unbalanced load condition, e.g., when conductors of one tower side are broken) and a reduced tension into the substations (slack span). Fig.6 Configuration of Medium voltage supports Various loading conditions specified in the respective national and international standards have to be met when designing towers. The climatic conditions, the earthquake requirements and other local environmental factors are the next determining factors for the tower design. When designing the support, a number of conditions have to be considered. High wind and ice loads cause the maximum forces to act on suspension towers. In ice-prone areas, unbalanced conductor tensile forces can result in torsional loading. Additionally, special loading conditions are adopted for the purpose of failure containment, that is, to limit the extent of damage. Finally, provisions have to be made for construction and maintenance. Depending on voltage level and the acting forces of the overhead line, differing designs and materials are adopted. Poles made of wood, concrete or steel are very often used for low voltage and medium-voltage lines. Towers with lattice steel design, however, prevail at voltage levels of 110 kV and above (fig.7). Guyed lattice steel structures are used in some parts of the world for high-voltage AC and DC lines. Such design requires a relatively fl at topography and a secure environment where there is no threat from vandalism and theft. Guyed lattice steel structures offer a substantial amount of cost savings with respect to tower weight and foundation quantities. However, a wider right-of-way has to be considered. Foundations for the supports Usually, overhead power line supports are installed on concrete foundations. The foundations have to sustain the overall weight of the tower and should be designed in accordance with the local or international standard applicable for the particular projct. Fig. 7;(a-h) Tower configurations for AC high-voltage lines. (i-l) Tower configurations for DC high-voltage lines The selection of foundation types and the design is decided by the: Total weight resulting from tower Location and Soil conditions Accessibility to the line route Availability of machinery Constraints of the particular country and the site Concrete blocks or concrete piers are in use for poles that exert bending moments on the foundation. For towers with four legs, a foundation is provided for each individual leg. Pad and chimney and concrete block foundations require good bearing soil conditions without groundwater. Driven or augured piles and piers are adopted for low-bearing soil, for sites with bearing soil at a greater depth and for high groundwater level. In case of groundwater, the soil conditions must permit pile driving. Concrete slabs can be used for good bearing soil, when subsoil and groundwater level prohibit pad and chimney foundations as well as piles. Fig. 8; Foundations for four-legged towers Route selection and tower spotting Selection of route and planning represent increasingly difficult tasks, because the right-of-way for transmission lines is limited and many aspects and interests have to be considered. Route selection and approval depend on the statutory conditions and procedures prevailing in the country of the project. Route selection nowadays involves preliminary desktop studies with a variety of route alternatives, environmental impact studies, community communication hearings and acceptance approval from the local authorities. [SIEMENS Power Engineering Guide 2009](9) Literature Survey The books and journals referred are detailed in references. The methodology has been decided after studying different literatures. The societal loss calculation have been taken from the paper Power Chain Managementà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ Audit Service Focus Professional Engineering Services/ www.powerchainmanagement.com. The effective of electrical systems is critical to the success of businesses and facilities. The electrical problems facing businesses today can often seem overwhelming, especially knowing that key elements of electrical systems are susceptible to failure. It can be costly and difficult to design a system that predicts failure and minimizes risks of dangerous hazards such as arc flash and from the graph which shows how does it cost in the time of losing the power supply. Fig -2 cost raven (2) To approximate cost of transmission losses. The loss calculations are based on an peak load current for a line.(7) EC (Energy Cost) = 3 x R x I 2 x 8760 x LF x AIC x LIF, and DC (Demand Cost) = 3 x R x I 2 x IDC x LIF Where EC = energy cost, $ / yr DC = demand cost, $ / yr R = conductor resistance (ohms/phase/mile) X line length (miles) I = peak load current on the line (amperes) 8760 = hours / year LF = loss factor (average loss / peak loss) AIC = average incremental energy cost for the year ($ / kWh) LIF = loss increase factor (1 + PU system losses reflecting increase) IDC = incremental demand cost ($ / kW-yr) Diffident maintenance strategies considered are : Run to failure condition based monitoring on line monitoring Hot line maintenance The cost relationship between materials based solely on purchase prices, the life cycle economics at all the factors and gives consideration to the time value of money based on a present value analysis. The approach of using present value, life cycle costs is often considered the fairest means of comparison because it considers and properly weighs all the material variables. This life cycle cost study gives consideration to the following:(6) Environmental conditions Material costs and availability Construction costs Projected service life Inspection costs / Inspection frequency Maintenance costs / Maintenance frequency For the purpose of present value calculations, a 4% inflation rate and a 10% discount rate are assumed. The equation used for computing the present value (PV) of a single expend

Sigmund Freud Essay

Sigmund Freud has investigated the Psychoanalytic Theory (1856-1939). This theory caused great inconvenience when delivered and accepted a systematic war because Freud revealed the importance and impact of human sexual impulses stressing that culture is built over their oppression. The Psychology of Conflict is one of the basic principles in the Psychoanalytic theory which sees the function of the mind as the expression of conflicting powers. Some of these forces are conscious but the key is unconscious. This conflict reflects a contradiction in dual nature of someone as a biological and social creature. During the development and socialisation of the individual it is inevitable to experience frustration anger, frustration and conflict / inconsistency (conflict). The Pleasure principle is another basic principle of psychoanalytic theory is that human psychology governed by the tendency of man craves pleasure and avoids the pain. The primary experience pleasure and pain play an import ant role in structuring of human personality. The Freud was first modern psychologist who gave importance to childhood. The sources of the ribs are always beyond the region of the conscious. They repulsed outside the conscious because they have painful character. Another basic principle of the psychoanalytic theory of personality is precisely this topographical perspective. Namely that every mental element judged on how accessible is the conscious. The conscious is only a small piece of psychic resources we have. Another basic principle is determinism. The events that occur in the human mind are not accidental, occasional or disconnected. The thoughts, feelings, impulses coming into consciousness are a chain of causally connected events, associated with some previous experience in life. Several of the links are unconscious. Another key element that sees the psychoanalytic theory. Personality is the dynamic view that that there are sexual sprints instinct of life (life oriented libidinal impulses – EROS) and aggressive momenta death instinct (destructive, death, aggressive impulses – THANATOS) that irritate and cause the mind to work with, act, to change. Because of their biological base these forces have called instincts or impulses (drives). Finally, another principle of psychoanalytic theory of personality is genetic point of view, namely that the birth of contrasts / conflicts, personality traits of neurotic symptoms and general psychological structure of man can be found at major events of childhood that created desires and imaginations. The roots  of psychological structures are born in fantasies and desires of childhood. The human soul consists of three concepts: the ego is the reservoir of mental energy – we are born with it which includes all biological instincts of hunger , thirst, sexual satisfaction, which give strength and direction to human behaviour. The ego begins to evolve after birth and occurs around the 6th month. The role of the ego is to mediate between that of reality, and the superego. That’s why we say that the ego operates on the reality principle and is conscious. The super- ego is the structure of personality that represents the moral principles of society as conveyed in person from their parents – is what we call conscience- and the source of obligations. Apart from the super – conscious ego has another piece of the ego-ideal. The Id and the super- ego are constantly in a fight. When ego cannot find a solution to reconcile the desires of the Id and the super-ego, anxiety is created. Stress is a warning message that ego does not succeed in his role. A group of neo- Freudian psychoanalysts were called ‘analysts of the Ego’ (Karen Horney, Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, etc. ) who gave greater importance to me and less to that . As it’s known, Freud argued that the ego is a mere intermediary that seeks to satisfy the needs and impulses of that without disrupting or to conflict with the superego. But according to analysts of the Ego , the one no longer seen as the superpower of mental structure and I treated like a force that has the ability to control the environment and to choose the time and manner in which satisfy the impulses of the id. The ego is considered capable to create and achieve satisfactory targets chos en by the individual. So between the instinctual drives, external conditions and Act inserted the thought that controls both the internal energy as and reactions of the individual to the external environment. A second new direction influenced psychoanalytic thinking emphasizes the importance of social relationships to explain the formation of personality. So instead of seeing human nature as the result of conflicts around the momenta of him, seeing it more as the result of the child’s relationship with other important people in his life . This direction is reflected in the modern psychoanalytic method called Theory of the relationship with the object or object relations (Object Relations Theory – Melanie Klein, Heinz Kohut). This theory emphasizes the relative adhesion (attachment) of the baby, especially the mother, and the importance of the quality of these early  attachments for the development of the ego of the child, feelings about oneself and developing interpersonal relationships in later life. So theorists of the relationship with the object they see the relationship with parents as an important determinant of the direction taken by the personality of the individual. Apart from these two directions of psychoanalytic thought seeing two of their colleagues nearby Freud, who came into conflict with him, to create their own schools. Jung disagreed with Freud about the nature of the subconscious. Jung believed that the unconscious is not just a reservoir of forbidden impulses and repressed memories, but also the source of our drive for pleasure and creativity. Jung also believed that within us there is a struggle of opposing forces. Every man has a passive – a feminine nature and dynamics â⠂¬â€œ masculine nature. Each one of us also has elements of introversion and extroversion. Also, there is a struggle between the face we present to others (persona) and private self-image (anima / animus). According to Jung, the work of every man is to be able to unite these opposing forces. The Adler disagreed with Freud because he believed that the main force mobilization in human life is not the satisfaction of sexual momenta, but the effort for supremacy. By this meant the interior searching for perfection. Adler said that all children are born with a deep sense of inferiority because of their small size, natural weaknesses and lack of knowledge and power in the world of adults. First used the term inferiority complex. Adler believed that the way parents relate to their children has a significant effect on the child’s ability to overcome these feelings of inferiority and succeed in later life. So Adler saw personality as deeply influenced by the quality of raw social relations. Also important psychoanalytic thought is that Karen Horney saw this adult personality as shaped by childhood experiences, but, unlike Freud, she gave this emphasis on social relationships – especially with parents – instead of solving contradictions of Him . The Horney tal ked about feelings † basic anxiety  » (basic anxiety) and  «basic hostility  » (basic hostility). When parents behave indifferently, derogatory and instability, the child feels insecure and helpless experiencing basic anxiety. These feelings, according to Horney are accompanied by a deeper feeling of resentment towards parents- basic hostility. Because this hostility cannot be expressed directly, because the child needs and fears his parents, repelled and leads to  feelings of worthlessness and anxiety. This tension between basic hostility and basic anxiety leads the child, and later neurotic adult, adopt one of the following 3 stops social interactions; An action towards other, an action against others and an action away from others. When moving towards the other, the person succumbs to others and is always anxious to please them in order to gain approval and love. The person moving against the other is trying to find confidence through domination. The goal of the person who moves away from others is to protect himself, to find safety in the distance, the removal. So he never wants to create close relationships. All these protective mechanisms create many interpersonal problems.

Functional Health Patterns Community Assessment Essay

Sharp Healthcare offers groups for breastfeeding mothers, postpartum depression, grieving for loss of a child, obesity, eating disorders etc. Do the community members value health promotion measures? What is the evidence that they do or do not (e.g., involvement in education, fundraising events, etc.)? Fundraising events for local kids with Neuroblastoma (Pediatric) Cancer Fundraise for community sports like football and cheerleading What  does the community value? How is this evident? Religion- Church on Sundays with family Family Values- many family functions like concerts in the local park, movie night at the Lake On what do the community members spend their money? Are funds adequate? Cars Homes, rent- cost of living is high in CA Eating out Shopping Middle Class majority, funds can get tight Health Perception/Management Predominant health problems: Compare at least one health problem to a credible statistic (CDC, county, or state). Obesity 33% in San Diego are overweight, 26% are obese 30% of kids grades 5/7/9 are overweight/obese in San Diego County (â€Å"Community profile: county†, 2013) Immunization rates (age appropriate). 4.5% of Kindergarteners are missing one or more vaccines Out of 43,000 kindergarteners in the county, 1900 are not fully immunized Not all families in San Diego are immunizing their children due to things they hear about vaccines- EX: vaccines causing autism Parents do not do their research and often listen to hear-say or false news reports Appropriate death rates and causes, if applicable. Top 10 causes of death in San Diego: Malignant neoplasms, diseases of the heart, Alzheimer’s, chronic lower respiratory diseases, cerebrovascular disease, accidents (unintentional injuries), diabetes, intended self-harm (Suicide), chronic liver disease (cirrhosis), hypertension/hypertensive renal disease and influenza/pneumonia (â€Å"San Diego County†, n.d.) In 2012, in San Diego alone there were 20,018 deaths 3,684 in East County San Diego 1,806 were Male 1,876 were Female 377 Hispanic 3,015 White 130 Black 88 Asian 70 Other Age groups 0-4 (28 deaths), 5-14 (6 deaths), 15-24 (42 deaths), 25-24 (68 deaths), 35-44 (90 deaths), 45-54 (278 deaths), 55-64 (474 deaths), 65-74 (587 deaths), 75-84 (863 deaths), 84+ (1,248 deaths) (â€Å"San Diego County†, n.d.) Prevention programs (dental, fire, fitness, safety, etc.): Does the community think these are sufficient? Drug Abuse prevention programs, Delinquent and school failure prevention programs CAL Fire teaches a fire prevention program locally in San Diego, CA Safe Kids San Diego which teaches prevention of unintentional accidents such as drowning, child passenger safety, sports and recreation safety and pedestrian safety (â€Å"Safe Kids San†, 2014) Western Dental provides services for people who no insurance for a cheaper rate Multiple gym facilities such as 24 hour Fitness, Crunch and Chuze are some of the biggest gyms out here Available health professionals, health resources within the community, and usage. Planned Parenthood- health care for pregnancy and STD prevention Local hospitals- Kaiser Permanente, Sharp Grossmont Hospital, Scripps Hospital, Sharp Memorial Hospital are a few big hospitals in San Diego, CA Urgent Care clinics like Doctors Express are available San Diego Public Health Language Specific healthcare such as Arabic, Spanish, Tagalog etc. Common referrals to outside agencies. WIC- Women, Infants and Children Black Women, Infants and Children Food Stamps Low Cost medical and dental care Habitat for Humanity Nutrition/Metabolic Indicators of nutrient deficiencies. Vitamin deficiencies such as Vitamin D and Iron Unexplained fatigue, brittle, dry hair, ridged or spoon shaped nails, mouth  problems, diarrhea, irritability or lack or appetite can all indicate nutrient deficiencies San Diego has one of the largest homeless populations in the country, especially homeless veterans. Malnutrition is prevalent in this group of people Obesity rates or percentages: Compare to CDC statistics. This bullet was answered up above in a previous question. Affordability of food/available discounts or food programs and usage (e.g., WIC, food boxes, soup kitchens, meals-on-wheels, food stamps, senior discounts, employee discounts, etc.). Food Stamps WIC (Women, Infants and Children) BWIC (Black Women, Infants and Children) Meals on wheels Senior discounts offered at some restaurants like Soup Plantation. 55 plus is considered senior citizen here in California Project Homeless Connect Availability of water (e.g., number and quality of drinking fountains). Water fountains in all stores and schools Drinking water (Tap water) meets most government standards but needs to be more thoroughly treated Water comes from 3 places: Northern California from snow and rain, the Colorado river and local rain water runoff Fast food and junk food accessibility (vending machines). Vending machines at most all high schools California trying to change contents to offer healthier choices Fast food on almost every corner- very accessible Evidence of healthy food consumption or unhealthy food consumption (trash, long lines, observations, etc.). Always long line as fast food places Gyms always crowed, protein/workout drinks always in hand Beaches are full of people in bathing suits (fit and unfit) Farmers markets on Wednesdays crowded A lot of people do special programs like Weight Watchers, Opti-Fast, Medi-Fast, Nutri-System, Jenny Craig etc â€Å"Re-think your Drink† this program is trying to eliminate sugar sweetened drinks and are replacing them with water, low fat milk for 50% or greater natural fruit juices Provisions for special diets, if applicable. Items containing specific allergies have them stated on the label like nuts, shellfish or specific fruits For schools (in addition to above): Nutritional content of food in cafeteria and vending machines: Compare to ARS 15-242/The Arizona Nutrition Standards (or other state standards based on residence) Fruit/veggie based drinks with no less than 50% fruit juice Milk 2% fat, non-fat, soy or rice milk Not more than 35 percent of its total calories can come from fat (excluding: nuts, seeds, eggs, cheese, fruit, vegetables and legumes) Not more than 10 percent calories from sat fat (Excluding: eggs and cheese) Not more than 35% of its total weight may be composed of sugar, including naturally occurring and added sugar (excluding: fruits and vegetables that have not been deep fried) Not more than 250 calories per individual food item (Middle schools and Jr High Schools, High Schools) No more than 175 per individual food item for elementary schools Amount of free or reduced lunch 60% free or reduced lunch in schools in San Diego, CA Elimination (Environmental Health Concerns) Common air contaminants’ impact on the community. Smog, Allergies- Pollen, Mold Noise. Major Airport, major Military bases, heavy traffic noises Waste disposal. Miramar Landfill Pest control: Is the community notified of pesticides usage? Yes, individual residences take care of their own pest problems Hanta Virus- In mouse poop in our area Hygiene practices (laundry services, hand washing, etc.). Laundry mats are in abundance, dry cleaners and individual washer and dryers in some residences Singing the â€Å"Happy Birthday† song twice while washing hands was on the local news to help people wash their hands more efficiently Toilet seat covers in most public bathroom services Signs stating â€Å"Must wash hands before returning to work† in all restaurant bathrooms Bathrooms: Number of bathrooms; inspect for cleanliness, supplies, if possible. Most public bathrooms have signs for employees to sign when they have checked and maintained the restroom Public bathrooms are generally clean and well stocked, if not usually an employee of the place is easily notified Universal precaution practices of health providers, teachers, members (if applicable). Protective gowns, gloves, shields when handling bodily fluids for health providers when in facilities Teachers usually do not have access to all of the equipment necessary but generally have gloves on hand Temperature controls (e.g., within buildings, outside shade structures). Temperatures generally in the 70-75 ranges in controlled areas such as schools and stores Shades provided at local parks Community pools and beaches available for hot temperatures Safety (committee, security guards, crossing guards, badges, locked campuses). Most day cares are locked facilities Crossing guards at most elementary and middle schools Security guards at stores and hospitals to prevent theft and crime Trolley Guards Volunteer Police patrol (Elderly men and women) Activity/Exercise Community fitness programs (gym discounts, P.E., recess, sports, access to YMCA, etc.). YMCAs Gyms: 24 hour fitness, crunch, chuze AYSO (local soccer leagues for kids) T-ball/ baseball/ softball fields at Cactus Park (name of play park) P.E in middle school/high school for 2 years Recess at elementary schools Zumba and Jazzercise programs locally Recreational facilities and usage (gym, playgrounds, bike paths, hiking trails, courts, pools, etc.). Playgrounds at most local parks Mission Trails- hiking, bike trails Cowles Mountain, Iron Mountain- Hiking trails Community pools- YMCAs Safety programs (rules and regulations, safety training, incentives, athletic trainers, etc.). Lifeguards at local community pools and beaches Safe drivers incentives with Allstate Insurance Discounts on car insurance with good grades and no trouble Crime Stoppers, Mc Gruff Crime Dog, Kidzwatch Academy, Safety Sam are police station programs that kids and other community members can participate in to ensure community safety Injury statistics or most common injuries. In San Diego, unintentional injuries were the sixth leading cause of death in 2009 Nearly 1000 people died that year of unintentional injuries with 30% of those caused by poisoning including overdose Every hour in San Diego, an average of 19 people are hospitalized or treated in the ER because of injuries Car accidents, drowning, falls, assault, struck by an object, burns, overexertion and suffocation are some of the most common causes of injury in all age groups Evidence of sedentary leisure activities (amount of time watching TV, videos, and computer). Computers used as primary resource for schools Internet used as primary resource for community Driving short distances that could be walked T.V takes up, on average, 2.8 hours of most people’s day Ages 15-19 spend read for an average of 4 minutes per weekend day and 52 minutes playing a game on the computer Ages 75 and over spend an average of 1 hour of reading per weekend day and 20 minutes playing games or using a computer Employed adults with no children spend about 4.5 hours per day doing leisure activities and employed adults with a child/children spend about 3.5 hours doing leisure activities per day Means of transportation. Trolley, Bus, Cars, Bikes, Walking and park and ride for carpool Sleep/Rest Sleep routines/hours of your community: Compare with sleep hour standards (from National Institutes of Health [NIH]). Eating heavy dinners, caffeine, smoking and exercise late in the day is effecting sleep of people in San Diego Graveyard shifts are common due to places being open 24/7 Sleeping anywhere from 6-9 hours Indicators of general â€Å"restedness† and energy levels. Lack of â€Å"bags† or â€Å"dark circles† under eyes Hair, makeup and outfit appropriate for environment Less caffeine needed Factors affecting sleep: Shift work prevalence of community members All shifts, mostly 12 hour shifts in the healthcare field, Mainly anywhere from 7am-6pm for most full time employed people Environment (noise, lights, crowding, etc.) Near main airport, military bases, lights and crowds near football and baseball stadiums, colleges, living near freeways Consumption of caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, and drugs A least 3 major Universities in San Diego (Caffeine intake!) Average age in San Diego is 20s-30s and large nightlife crowd downtown San Diego (Alcohol and drugs) 2012 drug stats: Heroin increase, crack/cocaine decrease, methamphetamines increase, marijuana increase, prescription opioids decrease, ecstasy decrease (â€Å"Drug abuse patterns†, 2014) Homework/Extracurricular activities High school student average 3 hours of homework per night Anywhere from 6.8 to 17.5 hours of homework per week for high school students Elementary schools 2.9 hours per week Middle school 3.2 hours per week After school sports- up to 3 hours of practice for some like football Health issues Stress, common colds/flu, pediatric cancers, diabetes types 1 and 2, obesity, hypertension Cognitive/Perceptual Primary language: Is this a communication barrier? English/ Spanish, Arabic, Vietnamese (possible communication barriers) 37.1 % of San Diego’s population speaks a different language than English Educational levels: For geopolitical communities, use http://www.census.gov and compare the city in which your community belongs with the national statistics. San Diego County : High school graduates 85.4 % Bachelor’s degree or higher 34.4 % (â€Å"State and county†, 2014) Opportunities/Programs: Educational offerings (in-services, continuing education, GED, etc.) Many programs offering GED programs and prep classes including community colleges All hospitals and healthcare centers provide in-services Grossmont college, Grossmont adult night school ROP (Regional Occupation Program) Learn English (program in El Cajon, CA to help foreigners learn English) Educational mandates (yearly in-services, continuing education, English learners, etc.) CEUs for nurses- 30 hours every 2 years for RNs Special education programs (e.g., learning disabled, emotionally disabled, physically disabled, and gifted) GATE- gifted and talented education program Children’s outreach project Library or computer/Internet resources and usage. El Cajon library Internet on all phones, ipads Computers at most schools including elementary schools Funding resources (tuition reimbursement, scholarships, etc.). Scholarships offered through the Chamber of Commerce for academics up to $3,000. Many colleges offer academic scholarships and sports scholarships (Full and partial rides) UCSD and Rady’s Children’s Hospital both have tuition reimbursement and student loan repayment programs UCSD will repay two thirds of the tuition or student loans Board of Governor’s Fee waver Military discounts Self-Perception/Self-Concept Age levels. Many families in El Cajon Mainly 20s and 30s in San Diego County such as downtown San Diego Kids under age 5= 6.5% of population People under age 18= 22.6 % of population People 65 and over= 12.3 percent of population Programs and activities related to community building (strengthening the community). San Diego City College peer mentoring program MAD (mothers against drunk driving) Big Brothers/Big Sisters program (Mentoring adolescents) Peer Leaders (high school program- students give other students â€Å"counseling† when they feel like they cannot talk to an adult) Community history. The area now known as San Diego County has been inhabited for over 10,000 years by the Kumeyaay Indians San Diego became part of the United States by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on 1848 ending the U.S. –Mexican War One of the original counties of California San Diego used to be a very large county including all of Los Angeles and extended to the Colorado river Pride indicators: Self-esteem or caring behaviors. San Diego is one of the most sought out cities to visit and/or live Very expensive because they demand is there A lot of plastic surgery in San Diego Spray tans, fake nails, fake hair, people are in shape (wears bikinis) San Diego residents support a lot of charities and cancer/disease foundations Donating money to a good cause is common among this community Published description (pamphlets, Web sites, etc.). San Diego Magazine Sandiego. org for local media (Website) Union Tribune San Diego (News Paper) Role/Relationship Interaction of community members (e.g., friendliness, openness, bullying, prejudices, etc.). East San Diego is more friendly than West or North San Diego (More money in those areas) Very accepting of Gays and Lesbians in San Diego ( Hill Crest is a city known for an abundance population) Gay Pride Parade is a huge event in SD Very large interracial community, not a lot of prejudices Programs to prevent in-school bullying Vulnerable populations: Why are they vulnerable? Homeless population downtown San Diego Lack of medical insurance How does this impact health? Increase spread of disease Increased severity of disease No access to medication or medical treatments Power groups (church council, student council, administration, PTA, and gangs): Mexican Mafia Logan Heights Gang Hells Angles PTAs in elementary schools Jehovah’s witness Mormons How do they hold power? Influential Have a lot of people under them or following them PTA helps make decisions for schools Positive or negative influence on community? Gangs usually a negative influence Hells Angels used to have more of a negative influence but now are more positive towards the community and support local charities like pediatric cancer ones Harassment policies/discrimination policies. Under the California Department of Public Health all employees have a right to work in an environment free from all forms of discrimination, including sexual harassment, intimidation, retaliation or coercion. The CDPH is committed to providing a work environment free from sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination that is illegal under both  state and federal law The Fair Employment and Housing Act defines sexual harassment as harassment based on sex or of a sexual nature; gender harassment; and harassment based on pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions. The definition includes harassment based on sexual orientation, and also protects an individual’s actual or perceived gender identity, whether or not different from the individual’s actual gender at birth The CDPH endorses a â€Å"zero tolerance† policy aimed at preventing all such inappropriate behavior. As a result, CDPH may take corrective actions, up to and including formal discipline, when policy violations occur, even if they are not so serious as to be unlawful (â€Å"Sexual Harassment Prevention†, 2008) Relationship with broader community: Police San Diego has had allegations of inappropriate behavior of police officers such as groping and sexual favors CHP, Sheriff’s department, Police in each city such an San Diego Police Department Fire/EMS (response time) Generally called from the City in which the Emergency is Response time is good- generally under 10 minutes Fire departments all work together from all surrounding cities when needed Large fire in Escondido/ San Marcos just happened in San Diego County, fire departments from all around came to help Cedar fire in El Cajon more than 10 years back, fire departments from out of state came and helped Other (food drives, blood drives, missions, etc.) San Diego Blood Bank- always has blood drives in parking lots of big stores like walmarts and businesses Local food drives at schools and healthcare clinics/facilities Sexuality/Reproductive Relationships and behavior among community members. Have had many allegations of teacher/student relationships Many older male/young female relationships and visa-versa Many relationships with more than 10 year gaps Young marriages/pregnancies common Married Population 45.15% Single Population 54.85% Now Married 43.16% Married but Separated 1.99% Never Married 40.39% Widowed 4.58% Divorced 9.88% Married, w/children 35.54% Married, no children 37.34% Single, w/children 16.27% Single, no children 10.86% (â€Å"People in San†, 2014) Educational offerings/programs (e.g., growth and development, STD/AIDS education, contraception, abstinence, etc.). Planned Parenthood- teachings and prevention methods of STDs and Pregnancy, prenatal care Access to birth control.

How Black Nationalism Helped Civil Rights - 991 Words

In the United States, racial tolerance in society has been a product of various struggles by civil rights groups and individuals over several decades. As racial tolerance should be a basic foundation of any society, it unfortunately had to be attained through various routes in the American society; some peaceful, while most not so much. For African Americans, tolerance through civil rights was achieved through two overlapping movements. The first type of movement was the desegregation movement, aimed at ending the separation of blacks and whites and trying to make them into one American community, such as the movement headed by Martin Luther King Jr. The other type of movement was the black nationalist movement whose aim was to empower†¦show more content†¦These black nationalists did not want to mix with the white population, and many wanted to eventually create a separate nation for African Americans. The black nationalists wanted to create a sense of black pride and un ity (Brooks.†Black Nationalism.†). Black Nationalism started in the late 1700s, starting with the American Colonization Society, or the ACS (McNeil and Mintz.†Black Nationalism and Black Power†). The ACS wanted free blacks to move to Liberia, on the western coastline of Africa. African Americans didn’t start believing in this idea until a wealthy African American man named Paul Cuffee started to support the cause (Davis and Brown. â€Å"The Antipathy of Black Nationalism.†). Another one of the early black nationalist leaders was Martin Delany, an abolitionist from the 1800s, who wanted blacks from the north to move back to Africa where they can settle back down and along with the natives and help build nation states. The African leaders needed help building countries in the devastating chaos the Europeans brought (Brooks.†Black Nationalism.†). Marcus Garvey In the 20th century, a major driving force of the black nationalist movement was the creation of black-oriented religions that fueled enmity and hatred against whites, the foremost of which was the Nation of Islam, or the NOI. The NOI was formed in the 1930s by a Detroit peddler named W.D Fard. Fard influenced a young,